Main economic case in favour of globalisation

Main economic case in favour of globalisation 1. Introduction The Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) defined globalisation as,The geographical dispersion of industrial and service activities for example, research and development, sourcing of inputs, production and distribution and the cross border networking of companies through joint ventures and the sharing of assets. According to Bhagwati and Jagdish (2004)economic globalization is the integration of national economies into the international economy throughtrade, for examples such as foreign direct investment, migration, and the technology transfer from one country to another. Despite, globalization recognised as combination of economic, technological, socio-cultural, political, and biological factors (Sheila, 2004). The term can also refer to the transnational circulation of ideas, languages, orpopular culturethroughacculturation. Economic activity is becoming organised on a global scale giving a new international division of labour, with production, investment patternsand movements and technology transfers all becoming global. In thisstrategy, activities are established in many sites spread over theworld, based on a countrys comparative advantage. 2. Factors that have led to the process of increased globalisation The rapid effects of globalisation can be linked to the growth of multi-national firms, since products and services have been increasingly internationalised, seen in the development of globalised supply chains. In addition to this, the deregulation of capital markets also makes it easier to achieve acquisitions and mergers. This has resulted in the expansion of the trans-national activities of multi-national firms, and particularly in motor cars, oil, pharmaceuticals, airlines and financial services. There has been an accompanying integration and fusion of national markets, in part through free trade zones such as NAFTA and AFTA, and often reflected in the escalation of foreign direct investment, including in the less developed world. Reference should also be made to cross-border connectivity in other words, the development of new information technologies, and the accompanying new ways of buying and selling goods and services. The process of globalisation is mainly motivated by the desire of corporations to increase profits and by governments intent upon tapping into the potential economic and social benefits that come from increased trade in goods, services and the free flow of financial capital. Among the factors, this essay has divided main drivers that accelerated the production and market globalization into two aspects which are static aspects and dynamic aspects. 3. Static trade globalisation 3.1. Technology Modern artefact and technological are a static aspects which accelerated global economies. In 1980s, the world communication has experienced a fundamental change in the perception of the world and one of the reaching transformations has been the economic structural changes on the global scale. The fundamental of these changes is seen to lie on the technological information revolution for example the intranet in US army base commercialise to market. The innovation of the new technologies has made many countries to grow and a good example in this case is e-marketing. The change in Technological have reducing the cost of transmitting information in other word new technologies presence death of distance. The internet has allowedinformation and communication technology to flourish for example E-business. Internet communications with branches, suppliers, plants, distributors andcustomers generally do not require a physical presence in another country, while much can be achieved through lic ensing and franchising. As a result administration costs have fallen as firms from different parts of the globe can trade efficiently and effectively. 3.2. Trade Liberlisation Another influential factor is the desire to circumvent tariff and non-tariff barriers by regional trading blocs. For example, the World Trade Organisation (WTO), which replaced the former GATT, was set up to help promote free trade by persuading countries to abolish tariffs and other barriers to open markets. The full benefits of trade liberalization are difficult to quantify. Studies evaluating the effects of trade liberalization under the Uruguay Round completed in 1994 estimate that the increase in annual global income could reach US$200 billion once the reduction in tariffs, export subsidies and quotas negotiated are fully implemented. A similarly positive outlook is provided by the Doha Round. With a 50 percent reduction in tariffs, the World Bank model suggests a real income gain for developing countries of US$ 83 billion or 1 percent, and an exports lift of 14.6 percent. High-income countries see a 0.3 percent real income gain of US$ 67 billion and a 2.8 percent increase in ex ports (Garrett and Goldin and Rodrik, 2003). 3.3. Comparative Advantage Supporters of the WTO argued that there could be substantial economic welfare gains if there was integration of the worlds economy into a single international market. Based upon Ricardos Theory of Comparative Advantage, it was argued that free trade was likely to benefit countries. By allowing each country to specialise in full orpart production would be concentrated in locations which will enjoy the comparative advantage. It was further argued that specialisation in one type of export was likely to improve its quality and perhaps reduce production costs. For example, Belgian chocolates are exported worldwide. Their high quality is due to expert skills that their producers developed, a process known as learning by doing. Their average costs have also been lowered, by the use of specialised labour and capital; through specialised knowledge and research and development and also perhaps through economies of scale. 3.4. Growth of Multi-National Enterprise (MNE) The growth of multi-national firms has contributed to the rapid increase in globalisation. Firstly, a multi-national firm can bedefined as a company that produces in more than one country. Inpractice, globalisation has involved MNEs because the scale of their investment is such that the sales of the largest MNEs exceed the entire GDP of many countries. Many MNEs have moved their production from the west to developing countries because they want to benefit from that countrys comparative advantage, usually access to much lower labour costs. Due to the low standard of living in many developing economies and lack of government legislation MNEs often locate in areas of high unemployment. Therefore they are likely to benefit from a continuous cheap supply of labour. In theory, this has led to the international division of labour. 3.5. Deregulation National economies have become increasingly integrated, leading to a growth in the number of trading blocs and economic unions. The process has been facilitated by the increased mobility of both physical and financial capital, the latter reflecting the trend towards the abolition of capital controls, the deregulation of financial markets, and the opening up of capital markets in LDCs and in the former Soviet bloc. 4. Dynamic trade of globalisation The European continent has seen a lot of dramatic changes over the past decades. Two world wars have been fought here and new countries have evolved every decade. With such a dynamic place as Europe one would think that trade would be a significantly contributing factor to the globalization of the continent. Taking this one step further it is most likely that other factors such as trade affinities are believed to facilitate trade flows between the trading parties which in turn have yielded a higher state of globalization. In order to be able to determine the effects that trade affinities have had on globalization through time one must first start by determining the meaning of the word globalization. Harris (1993) states in his article Globalization, trade, and income To economists globalization is generally thought of as the increasing internationalization of the production, distribution, and marketing of goods and services. (Harris, 1993, p755). By taking this one step further one can look at globalization as the term use when define the process, or evolution, of the welfare around the world. Although, Harris argues that the definition of globalization alters between subjects but that its importance remains the same no matter the discussion. However one defines globalization it is surely a development that is having a profound impact on the subject of economics as a whole and ought to have on the field of international economics in particular. (Harris, 1993, p. 756) To understand and describe globalization it is not enough to concentrate on the static aspect and the primary phenomena. Not less important for the globalization dynamic are the consequences and rebound effects. 4.1. Improve poverty Poverty reduction has remained the central challenge to majority of the countries especially the developing countries. It is with the help of globalization that majority of the countries have been in a position to reduce their poverty levels. There is great evidence that with the introduction of globalization, it has been in a position to eradicate poverty levels and eventually accelerating growth in most of the countries. It is an important catalytic role in both accelerating growth and also at the same time reducing poverty levels. A good example in this case can be explained by analyzing the developing countries. The developing countries have been in a position to grow out of globalization especially in agriculture sector. This is because with globalization, it means that there is a common market for goods and services and at the same time there are no restrictions to trade. It means that the developing countries that are not in a position to compete with the already developed countries can now compete well with them since you find that with globalization, it means free trade that is a trade which is free from trade restriction. Most of the developing countries found it hard to trade globally due to the introduction of tariffs which were usually high for the infant industries to meet. They had limited exports since the tariffs which were imposed when exporting these goods and services were high hence leading to the increased costs of production. It is out of the increased costs of production that the infant industries from the developing countries could not realize their competitive advantage hence leading to increased poverty levels to these countries. As a result, the countries which are still underg oing development can now benefit from globalization since it means that they are in a position to export their products freely and hence can compete effectively with the other developed countries. As a result, it means that globalization has done so much in eradicating poverty levels especially in the developing countries (Boswell, and Dimitris, 1997). 4.2. Increase employment Globalization accelerated growth from opening, an accelerated creation of private companies or MNEs and trade expansion have substantially accelerated the pace of job creation. During 1982-1999, the number of new jobs created in manufacturing and services almost doubled from 1965-1982 (Hauser and OberhÃÆ'Â ¤nsli, 2002). Source: adopted from Hauser and OberhÃÆ'Â ¤nsli in WTO news creates additional jobs (2002) According to Eurostat statistic data, in the 17 years from 1982 to 1999, 34 million jobs were created on average every year in manufacturing and services worldwide. From 1991 to 1999, 30.6 million new jobs were created worldwide, slightly less than during the period 1982-1991. This slowdown in job creation is the result of the restructuring of the formerly socialist economies in Europe (CEE/CIS), as the result of earlier mistakes and misallocations during the communist period. Another event was the 1997 Asian crisis that, according to ILO estimates, destroyed approximately 10 million jobs (ILO, 2000). But this latter event came after a period of very high job creation; for the whole period 1991-1999 it is the job losses in Eastern Europe that practically explain the difference, both in absolute and relative terms, in job creation vis-ÃÆ'Â  -vis the 1982-1991 period. Between 1982 and 1999, employment growth was mainly in emerging economies, plus about 80 percent in Latin America and in Africa/Middle East, close to 120% in developing Asia. The very high pace of employment creation in emerging economies has not been a zero-sum game; all regions in the industrialized world participated in the employment gains, both in absolute terms and also relative to total population. The only area with unsatisfactorily low growth in employment was the European Union, but this was clearly not a consequence of globalizationbut of the excessive rigidities that constitute an obstacle to markets adjustments. 4.3. Enhanced economic interdependence The sharp rise in trade has been accompanied by an even faster increase in foreign investment flows, as industries and companies relocate production processes throughout the world. During 1980-1997, world foreign direct investment flows increased at an annual average rate close to 15 percent, almost twice as fast as trade growth and considerably faster than world output. In particular, during the 1993-1998 periods, foreign direct investment (FDI) flows rose at an even faster rate, from US$219 billion to US$692 billion (UN, 2001). Developing countries for long only receivers of FDI have now also become investors abroad. Trueglobalization does not mean one-way flows, but it means true interdependence. Economic interdependence can be taken to mean the economic corporation of many countries. Many countries are thought to have increased their economic interdependence. These countries are seen to come together for the trade purposes. A good example in this case can be seen in the formation of NAFTA, WTO, and UNACTAD among other bodies which are said to have increased the production and the market globalization. A good example in this case is NAFTA (North American free Trade association). It is with the formation of NAFTA the member countries have been in a position to expand in growth. This is because it is a free trade association between the member countries whereby there are reduced tariffs to the members of the association. So, the infant industries in these countries can be protected hence leading to their increased production. These countries will be in a position to produce more goods and services and sale them globally hence leading to the growth of the economy. So, it can be argued that the increased economic interdependence has led to the increased production of goods and services and also the globalization market. This is because these countries have made trade agreements so that they can promote trade (Boswell, and Dimitris, 1997). It is also with the increased economic integration that economies have been in a position to improve on infrastructure. The communication process in this case has been made easy since the communication travel for these goods are made easy. With a good infrastructure, the production of these goods and services have increased since they can be transported quickly and marketed so quickly. The integrated labour force is also another area which has led to the increased production of goods. This is because the integrated labour ensures that people from other countries can work in a given country as long as they have the skills. As result, more expertise in the production hence lead to the increased production and the globalization market (Boswell, and Dimitris, 1997). Conclusion Globalization is one of the areas that led to most economies to improve. A good can be explained by analyzing the developing countries that they have benefited from the technologies developed by the rich countries. Without globalization that most of the developing countries that could not compete effectively with the developed countries are seen to benefit a lot from the issue of globalization. The rich countries are not better off because they have taken prosperity away from the poor ones; rather, the poor countries are better off because, but situation would have further improved had they been better prepared to capture the benefits of globalization. In additional, globalization is seen to have so many advantages in term of social, economical, and political aspects. It is seen to have increased production hence leading to the economic growth of countries especially in the developing countries. REFERENCES: Bhagwati, Jagdish (2004).In Defense of Globalization. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Pres Boswell, T and Dimitris, S. 1997. Globalization and International Labor Organizing: A World-system Perspective.Work and Occupations,24(3), pp.288-308. Garrett, Michael; Goldin, Ian A.; Rodrik, Dani (2003); Scenarios International Trade and Doha Development Agenda; World Economic Forum Annual Meeting Davos January 2003. Harris, G. R. (1993). Globalization, trade, and income. Retrieved Febuary 7th , 2010 from http://www.jstor.org/sici?sici=00084085(199311)26%3A4%3C755%3AGTAI%3E2.0.CO%3B2-0 Hauser, H and OberhÃÆ'Â ¤nsli, H. (2002). Globalization creates additional jobs; in: WTO-News; University St. Gallen February; www.wto-news.ch. ILO (2000). World Labour Report 2000. Income security and social protection in a changing world. Geneva: ILO. Martin, Will- Winters, Alan (Eds.) (1996). The Uruguay Round and the Developing Countries. World Bank and Cambridge University Press. London, U.K. Sheila L. C (2004).Globalization and Belonging: The Politics of Identity in a Changing World. United Nations (2001).World Investment Report 2001: Promoting Linkages. UNCTAD. New York, U.S.A. and Geneva, Switzerland.

Media Framing And Construction Of Reality Media Essay

Media Framing And Construction Of Reality Media Essay Over the twentieth century, the dominant position among scholars was that media and journalism should be governed by the values of detachment and objectivity, and so they could be credible (Schudson, 1990 cited in Watkins, 2001: 83). Nevertheless, this notion has been challenged by the researchers of critical studies of news media who have developed the view that media are not passive mirrors of society (Gitlin, 2003: 49), but, on the contrary, they play active and significant role in the social construction of reality (Kruse, 2001: 68). In other words, media do not just report news, but they socially construct them, namely they give a specific meaning to these events (Kruse, 2001: 67-68). The theory of social constructionism, which supports that what we know about world and ourselves is the result of social processes (Cromby and Nightingale, 1999: 4 cited in Johnson-Cartee, 2005: 2), has affected media studies to a significant extent. In this context, plenty of scholars (Brodyn and Page, 1975; Kraus and Davis, 1976; McCombs, 1979 cited in Johnson-Cartee, 2005: 2) believe that media provide us with the mosaics from which we build our own perceptions and accordingly, they might have significant effects on public and society. According to McQuail (1994), the whole study of mass communication has been founded on the assertion that media have important effects. However, the concept of media effects was not always the same, as there were significant variations from period to period and among different scholars. Additionally, there are studies that did not identify any significant media effect at all (Kingdon, 1984; Pritchard and Berkowitz, 1993; Walker, 1977; Wanta and Foot e, 1994 cited in Walgrave et al. 2008: 817). The social construction of news is achieved through the development and employment of frames (Kruse, 2001: 68). Gamson and Modigliani (1987: 143) have defined the frame as a central theme, an organizing idea or a story line that provides meaning to an unfolding strip of events, weaving a connection between them. As for the employment of frames by media, Entman (1993: 52) has stated that adopting certain frames means that media select some aspects of perceived reality and make them more salient, in such a way as to promote a particular problem definition, causal interpretation, moral evaluation and treatment recommendation for the item described. As far as protest coverage is concerned, the literature shows that when media portray demonstrations and other protest events, they indeed employ certain frames (Brasted, 2005). The types of frames that are used and the factors that determine and influence the selection of these frames are described below. As far as the effects of protest coverage are concerned, there are studies that demonstrate that media portrayal of protests has significant effects on audience (McLeod, 1995; McLeod and Detenber, 1999). According to these studies, different frames of protest stories and different levels of intensity with which they are presented are likely to affect how audience perceives protest issues. However, according to Detenber et al (2007), these effects are weaker when media cover more familiar to the audience issues, because of pre-existing knowledge of public. Affecting the perceptions of audience, media coverage of protests may have an influence on the success of the movement itself, a s well. For instance, a positive coverage may encourage the involvement of people, while a negative coverage may lead to opposite results and may undermine a social movement (Entman and Rojecki, 1993). However, certain conditions may be required so that media mobilize people. According to Walgrave and Manssens (2000), media are more likely to mobilize public, if they are not polarized and have high rates of trust among the audience. In addition, in cases of simple and non-political causes and goals, media can achieve peoples mobilization (Walgrave and Manssens, 2000). 2.2 Relationship between media and social movements Over the last decades, significant studies have been conducted on the coverage of protest events by mass media. Based mainly on content or discourse analyses, scholars tried to describe how media portrayed various protest events and explain why specific patterns were used in the coverage. However, the relevant literature is mostly based on USA and UK studies and it is something that we have to take into account as in diverse settings the results may be different. It is important to consider the differences of Greek setting in terms of the media system and the political culture, as well as the particularities of the case that is under examination. Firstly, in order to approach the issue of protest coverage, it is basic to examine the literature about the relationship between media and social movements, in general. Although the case that is under examination, namely the December 2008 protest events in Greece, cannot be simply included in typical cases of social movements (protests were not organized by specific social movement organizations with clear and specific agenda, like in cases of anti-war or labour protests), the examination of the relevant literature is considered helpful. Baylor (1996) has supported that media and social movements have interdependent relationship. That is to say, on the one hand social movements need media and publicity to communicate their goals, to inform and motivate the public, as well as to gain supporters (Baylor, 1996). On the other hand, media search for copy and they are interested about stories that provide drama, conflict, action, colourful copy and photo opportunities, (Baylor, 1996). Soc ial movements and the actions that they choose to adopt, like demonstrations, provide that kind of stories. However, it has been supported that this and this relationship can be sometimes symbiotic and other times antagonistic, because media and movements need each other, but for different reasons (Gitlin, 2003). Gitlins study (2003) demonstrated that this relationship has undergone many changes. Sometimes, media might ignore a movement or might conflict with it, and other times, they might present it in a patterned way, or even cooperate with it (Gitlin, 2003). Many factors explain why media treat social movements and protest events in a specific way and they are analyzed below. The interaction between movements and media has also been considered asymmetric, which means that the relationship is not equal and generally, media are much more powerful than movements (Gamson and Wolfsfeld, 1993). For instance, the fact that a demonstration without media coverage is considered non-event, reveals the great power and supremacy of media nowadays (Gamson andWolfsfeld, 1993). Social movements do not have the power to control the media process, so even if they gain media coverage, they do not have much power over how media will represent their agendas (Brasted, 2005). In many cases, media coverage can result in distortion of movement agendas and goals (Baylor, 1996). Generally, critical media scholars share the view that media tend to marginalize or trivialize critical social movements and suppress critical voices, while social movement organizations do not have the power to ensure useful news access (Gitlin, 2003). This approach to movement-media relationship is highly connected with hegemonic thesis, introduced by Gramsci (1971 cited in Carragee, 1993: 330), according to which dominant classes struggle to preserve their ideological hegemony within the capitalist system and medias role in the maintenance of legitimacy of existing political, social and economic order is considered of high importance. This thesis has affected media scholars significantly, and until now, there are studies that show that media tend to delegitimize voices that challenge capitalist system and the leadership of dominant groups. Media hegemonic model has met a lot of criticism. Carragee (1993) tried to evaluate the debates around the media hegemony thesis and gave an overview of the main critiques around the issue. According to him , the basic challenging views of the model can be divided into two categories; according to liberal-pluralist perspective, media hegemony thesis is cancelled by the existence of diverse and opposing discourses in news content; according to neo-conservative approach, the model is questioned by the fact that there are oppositional and critical to political and market order, media. Hallin (1986 and 1984 cited in Carragee, 1993: 341), tried to refute the latter argument, demonstrating that for instance, media coverage of Vietnam War started to become critical, only when political elites in America stopped to indicate their consent. Finally, as for media-movement relationship, Barker-Plummer (1996) claimed that today this relationship has become much more complex and proposed the dialogic model instead of hegemonic. According to Barker-Plummer (1996), social movements are dynamic and not stable identities and they are characterized by contextual changes that hegemony model does not take into account. Movements and media interact each other and their discourses can affect each other as well (Barker-Plummer, 1996). Therefore, we cannot assure that media will always marginalize social movements. 2.3 Protest coverage As has already been mentioned, media adopt certain frames, when they report news stories. The selection of specific frames and patterns of coverage is influenced by numerous factors. As far as the protest reporting is concerned, it has been supported that media coverage is subject to selection and description bias (Smith et al., 2001). This means that media do not cover all protests that take place but they select to report some of them, besides they select to describe the selected events in a specific way. According to Smith et al. (2001), media cover only a small proportion of protests. Furthermore, their study demonstrates that even if a protest event receives media attention, media usually neutralize or distort its agenda and goals (Smith, et al. 2001). A plenty of researchers (Shoemaker, 1984; Beamish, Molotch, and Flacks, 1995; Husting, 1999; McLeod and Hertog, 1999) have showed that media commonly choose to cover protests in ways that marginalize the events, their participants and their causes. Particularly in cases in which protesters deviate from the norms and values of society and challenge the status quo, media try to delegitimize them (Shoemaker, 1984; McLeod and Hertog, 1992). There are various devices and techniques that are used for the marginalization of protest events (see below). In order to understand how media bias affects the selection and portrayal of news stories, and specifically protest stories, we should examine the basic factors that influence media framing. Smith et al. (2001) have emphasized the role of institutional logic of media organizations in adoption of frames. Analytically, the routine nature of newsgathering (namely, whether the events can be integrated into media organizational routines) and the reliance on official sources affect media selection and description of events (Baylor, 1996). The main reason why they use official sources extensively is the fact that these sources provide news stories with credibility and legitimacy, as well enhance the objectivity of news, or at least they create this illusion (McLeod and Hertog, 1999). Also, it has to do with issues of cost as well, because if media rely on sources that are considered credible, they do not need to invest much money for searching information (Herman and Chomsky, 1994). When of ficials, institutions, government, and other authorities like police are the dominant sources, then official definitions are highlighted (McLeod and Hertog, 1999). An idea that has influenced significantly the area of news production is the propaganda model, developed by Herman and Chomsky (1994), which has received hostile criticism, though. According to this model (Herman and Chomsky, 1994), the choice and the content of news are affected by a series of filters. Analytically, media ownership and their profit orientation, their close ties with political and economic elites, their dependence on advertising as a basic income source, as well as the heavy reliance of media on official sources influence what and how it will be reported (Herman and Chomsky, 1994). Herman and Chomsky (1994) paid particular attention to the role of money and power in the construction of news. In cases of protest coverage, these filters could play important role. Similarly, Smith et al (2001) have supported that media, as integral part of capitalist system, work in favour of powerful economic and political interests and they select and interpret the events in such a wa y as to reproduce ideas that support the broader power relationships of society. Accordingly, media are unlikely to cover sympathetically movements and protests that challenge the interests of the elites (Lee and Solomon, 1990). These ideas are highly connected with the hegemonic thesis that was described above. As far as the debates over Chomsky and Hermans ideas are concerned, Hallin (1994) has demonstrated that propaganda model contains failures. That is to say, according to him (Hallin, 1994), the model does not take into account other forces that could work in different direction from that of the described filters, for instance journalistic professionalism and objectivity. However, it is important to mention that according to Hallin and Mancini (2004), journalism in Greece is characterized by low levels of professionalization, besides it is common for Greek journalists to express their views and their comments along with the presentation of facts, and so it is difficult to discern their opinions from the facts. Additionally, propaganda model has been criticized for taking ruling class interests for granted and considering them homogenous (Knight cited in Klaehn, 2003: 363). This means, that media do not take diverse interests and conflicts, which might exist among elites, into consideration. In response to that, Herman and Chomsky (1988) have stated that media present elite controversy and debates, but only when elites disagree on specific tactics and not on fundamental ideas. Based on these ideas, the indication of literature (Boyle et al. 2004) that media are more likely to marginalize deviant protest groups that criticize the foundations of capitalism than groups with less radical goals seems rational. Other scholars have challenged propaganda model, claiming that media are pluralistic (Doyle, Elliot, and Tindall, 1997), while Hacket (1991 cited in Klaehn, 2003: 366) have demonstrated that media, under certain conditions, can express oppositional and different views. For instance, if a v iew challenges individual state policies and does not suggest significant and wide alternatives, then it can be expressed by the media (Hackett, 1991: 281 cited in Klaehn, 2003: 366). So, Hackett seems to agree with Chomsky and Herman on that media do not express discourses that challenge the fundamental principles of capitalism. Although Chomsky and Hermans ideas were an area of great debate among scholars, literature shows that a great number of media scholars share the opinion that media play a central role in the maintenance of social order. McFarlane and Hay (2003) have claimed that media act as gatekeepers and supporter of the existing power structures. According to McLeod and Hertog (1999), media, are important agents of social control and thus, they convey social control messages, through which they reinforce the norms and mainstream values of society while they isolate and damn deviant actions and viewpoints. Various studies (Entman and Rojecki, 1993; Smith et al. 2001) have demonstrated that media tend to marginalize groups, actions, and viewpoints that challenge and criticize the existing power structures and political and social order. As a result, media will ignore or they will unfavourably cover protests with goals and agendas that challenge and criticize the economic system on which media rely heavily, as well as ideas that can destabilize market and capitalist order (Smith et al. 2001). However, it is important to mention that nowadays there is a significant trend toward rising of protests and generally of unconventional forms of political engagement (Milne, 2005). This trend can be attributed to the fact that more and more citizens are questioning government policies and elites, as well as to the decrease of participation in ordinary forms of politics, like elections (Dalton, 2004) and to the decline of political attachment (Whiteley, 2003). So, it has been supported that protests have partly become an accepted form of political involvement (Milne, 2005). That might have some effects on media coverage of these events. Milne (2005) has supported that sometimes media, and specifically print media (due to fact that they have been facing problems of reduced circulation numbers and facing a strong competition from internet), can have a positive attitude towards these unconventional forms of political involvement. Additionally, according to Milne (2005), newspapers can u se social movements and protest events as a tool to undermine some politicians or political parties, and therefore they may cover them positively. For instance, a newspaper, which is affiliated with a party that is in opposition, might support a demonstration that challenges the government and its policies. Consequently, in these cases media seem to be pluralistic and not hegemonic. Yet, it is important to examine whether media cover positively groups that challenge fundamental principles of the capitalist system, or they just question specific policies and tactics. Generally, literature has demonstrated that media have never supported radical protest groups that called into question the capitalism itself. Finally, it is important to take into account the particularities of Greek media system, because they might influence the way that media cover events like demonstrations. According to Hallin and Mancini (2004), media system in Greece belongs to the Mediterranean or Polarized model. That is to say, it is characterized by high political parallelism and low professionalization (Hallin and Mancini, 2004). Papathanasopoulos (2001) has claimed that despite the commercialization and market-orientation of Greek media, (the majority of media are private-owned, apart from the public broadcaster, ERT), their political instrumentalization is still dominant, that is to say there are outside political actors that control them. However, he has highlighted that nowadays media owners are much more powerful than politicians are, using media as a tool for political profits (Papathanassopoulos, 2001). So, Greek media cannot be considered neutral, but on the contrary, unabashedly partisan, sensational an d political (Zaharopoulos and Paraschos, 1993: 96). 2.4 Marginalization techniques As has already been mentioned, in many cases literature shows that media tend to cover negatively and marginalize protest events. The devices and techniques, which are usually employed for that purpose are described analytically below. Tone of headlines and articles Firstly, through the tone of headlines and the nature of articles, journalist can express their support or criticism against a protest group (Boyle at al. 2004). A protest story is covered negatively, when headlines pay particular attention to violent actions, to conflicts between protesters and police, as well as to arrests (McLeod and Hertog, 1999). Negative nature of a protest article can be indicated through many ways, for instance by focusing on cases of legal violations by the protest group and by emphasizing negative actions of protesters and more extreme aspects of them (McLeod and Hertog, 1992). According to Husting (1999), media commonly use the us versus them scenario in the coverage of radical protests. In other words, on the one side it is the society, the public opinion, all of us and on the other side the protesters, them. Furthermore, according to McLeod and Hertog (1999), journalists tend to use the episodic framing when they cover groups that deviate from the status quo, namely they focus on events and actions of protesters (e.g. violent acts, arrests, destructions) instead of presenting the issues raised by the group, like their agenda and their goals. The use of episodic frames contributes to the marginalization of protests because this way, protesters are performed just as acting and their acts are not linked with any cause, or any political context (Boyle et al. 2004: 49). It is important to mention that there are two important reasons that can explain why media choose that type of coverage. Firstly, because of pressure that deadlines and other limitations of media organization exert, there is not much time for reporters to investigate and analyze complicated issues that have to do with the goals of protesters and it is easier to focus on events (Boyle et al. 2004). Furthermore, protest events a nd actions are interesting and good news, for instance violent events and property destructions interest journalists significantly (Boyle et al. 2004). Story framing Mcleod and Hertog (1999) have identified several types of frames that tend to marginalize protest events and their participants. Firstly, the violent crime story is the most frequent frame and focuses on the violent acts of protesters. Journalists tend to highlight clashes between police and protesters and generally, they focus on the extreme aspects of the protest group; the ignorance of peaceful actions is also common phenomenon (McLeod, 1995). Secondly, the property crime story emphasizes the property destructions, for instances cases of vandalism (burning cars and buildings, breaking shop windows etc.). There is also the Riot frame that is quite similar to the above-mentioned frames and present protests as riots without any political context. An additional frame that marginalizes protests is the carnival frame, which represents protesters as performers within a spectacle who act without any political cause. Furthermore, the freak show frame focuses on appearance and other odd cha racteristics of protesters, like piercing, nudity etc. By making comments about the appearance, media manage to trivialize the goals and the political framework of protesters (Gitlin, 2003). There is also the Romper Room frame that presents protesters as engaging in immature and childish actions and the moral decay that presents protest events as an indication of the general decay of society. Lastly, the storm watch frame highlights the fact that protest groups may threaten the mainstream society significantly. What is interesting and at the same time contradictory is the fact that on the one hand, media seek to diminish the effectiveness of protest groups, but on the other hand, they exaggerate the threats that these groups may pose to society (McLeod, 1995). Reliance on official sources The reliance on official sources in the media coverage of protests contributes to the marginalization and delegitimization of the protest group, because official sources tend to support status quo and question the legitimacy of groups that challenge it (McLeod and Hertog, 1999). Furthermore, when media cover radical protests, they are unlikely to use members of the protest group as sources (Boyle et al, 2004). In this case, they are interested in dealing with actions, violence, and conflicts in order to delegitimate them, while they want to ignore issues raised by protesters (Boyle et al. 2004: 50). However, even if protesters are used as sources, then journalists usually paraphrase and distort their views, in order to delegitimize them (McLeod and Hertog, 1999: 319). Invocation of public opinion In cases of protests coverage, media invoke public opinion extensively in order to isolate and marginalize protest groups (McLeod Hertog, 1992). Media depiction of public opinion can take many forms. Journalists can make generalizations by providing general statements about public opinion, and showing that people are against protesters; phrases such as the national mood or most people feel, are common (McLeod and Hertog, 1992; McLeod and Hertog, 1999: 316). Another form of invocation of public opinion, but rarely used, is through opinion polls, (McLeod and Hertog, 1992; McLeod and Hertog, 1999). It has been claimed that if opinion polls demonstrate that the majority of people agree with the goals of protesters, then media may ignore or marginalize them (Entman and Rojecki, 1993). Whats more, media commonly invoke social norms, in order to show that protest groups and their actions deviate from these norms (McLeod and Hertog, 1992; McLeod and Hertog, 1999). The communication of norm violations is achieved by focusing on violent behaviour of protesters, on their non-conventional or strange appearance etc. (McLeod and Hertog, 1992; McLeod and Hertog, 1999). Media may also focus on legal violations (McLeod and Hertog, 1999). That is to say, legal issues and violations are highlighted, and protesters are represented as criminals. Media can also invoke public opinion by using bystanders who are either indifferent to protests or hostile (McLeod and Hertog, 1999). The application of the above-mentioned techniques depends mainly on the type and the goals of protests (Boyle et al, 2004). For instance, the extent to which a protest group challenges the status quo and the existing system determines whether and to what degree media will apply the marginalization devices in their coverage (McLeod and Hertog, 1999). It has been claimed that anti-war protests are more likely to receive negative and radical coverage than the labour or police protests, because anti-war protests call into question the social system (Boyle et al. 2004). Finally, it is important to note an important contradiction. As has been mentioned above, media are based on official sources largely because the credibility and the status of those sources help journalist to be objective. The use of episodic framing can satisfy the same goal. That is to say, media report events and actions that indeed took place, without expressing their views, so they can support that they are objective. But, on the other hand, it has been demonstrated that framing in terms of events as well as adoption of official definitions contribute to the marginalization of protests, which means that finally media are not so objective. Summary In general, the main arguments about media coverage of protest events are highly connected with the hegemonic thesis that supports that media play an important role in the maintenance of status quo. Although this idea has received a lot of criticism, it has affected media studies to a significant extent. Several studies have demonstrated that media have a tendency to delegitimize and trivialize groups that challenge capitalist system and the leadership of dominant groups. In cases of protest events, literature showed that media tend to ignore them and generally cover a limited number of them, while even if a demonstration gain attention, media choose to describe it in negative way, trying to marginalize it. This is more common in cases of radical protests, namely when they have radical goals and agenda and challenge the foundations of capitalism. The marginalization is achieved with the employment of various devices and specific frames. Nevertheless, the findings of the specific study demonstrated that, under certain circumstances, media can use a variety of frames and not only the negative ones and generally be more balanced, even if they cover some radical demonstrations. Particularities in terms of the nature of protest events, specific elements of media system, as well as some political circumstances can have significant influence on media portrayal of protests.

Great Gatsby :: essays research papers fc

Fitzgerald’s Masterpiece F. Scott Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby is an enchanting novel, which tells an exquisite story through various techniques characteristic of a gifted author. The story has elements of deceit, high hopes, fallen dreams, and false intentions which make it thrilling to read. However, the true genius of the novel lies in the character description, setting of the novel, and the structure and form used. It is these literary devices that set The Great Gatsby apart from other novels. Life in the 1920’s was much different than that of life during any other era and Fitzgerald depicts this in The Great Gatsby very accurately through the characters. One critic stated that “The only bad of it is that the characters are mostly so unpleasant in themselves that the story becomes rather a bitter does before one has finished with it'; (Wilson 149). Where as one may take this as an insult, it can also be taken as a compliment. This shows that Fitzgerald described the character and their action so realistically that the reader developed strong opinions of the characters. Fitzgerald’s use of the setting is also another incredible technique used in The Great Gatsby. Fitzgerald’s description of Gatsby’s mansion is a perfect example of this. “The one on my right was a colossal affair by any standard- it was a factual imitation of some Hotel de Ville in Normandy, with a tower on one side, spanking new under a thin beard of raw ivy, and a marble swimming pool and more than forty acres of lawn and garden. It was Gatsby’s mansion.'; Throughout the novel Fitzgerald uses this type of description to put the reader into the story and give them a realistic sense of the time period. Not only do the words themselves paint pictures, but also the structure and form used is a delight. “…Every line of hard and intelligent effort'; (Mencken 148). The incredible part about this is that Fitzgerald does not do it too elaborately where the reader will get lost, but “written in sentences one can understand which is a comfort'; (Stein 149). Fitzgerald has written a complete novel which is his “best planned, best sustained, and best written [of Fitzgerald’s works]…not a whole in it anywhere'; (Wilson 147). The Great Gatsby is one of the few novels that is able to incorporate a wonderfully crafted setting and a very realistic set of characters that depict the young people of the time all in a smooth flowing well written novel.

Article Analysis - Gun Control :: Constituton Bill Rights Right To Bear Arms

Article Analysis - Gun Control The article, Taking Aim at Gun Control by Daniel D. Polsby and Dennis Brennen was written October 30, 1995 for the Heartland Executive Summary. The article deals with current gun control issues, and uses both statistical information, and emotional ideology to convince you of the authors’ opinion. The article is broken down into five sub topics, that are each supported by statistical information. In the first sub topic the main heading claims, "There is no relationship between the number of privately owned guns and the amount of violent crime in the United States." It is then supported with the statistics that gun ownership has increased by forty-five percent, and the homicide rate fell by ten percent. The article also quotes various studies taken from criminologists, such as Gary Kleck and E. Britt Patterson. The authors tend to begin their argument with factual information. They then use that information to cultivate their emotional argument. This can be seen in each of the sub topics. The first three topics, "There is no relationship between the number of privately owned guns and the amount of violent crimes in the United States," "There is no relationship between gun control laws and violent crime," and "Data from the City of Chicago cast further doubt on the effectiveness of gun control laws," use studies and statistics to prove their point. The last two sub topics, "Why do gun control laws fail?" and "What do we do about crime and violence?", offer the authors’ emotional argument. This is the section of the article where the true opinion of the two authors is seen. They sum up their beliefs, with what they consider to be a better solution to improving society without gun control. They suggest that by educating the public on proper gun safety and handling, fewer people would be hurt. It is also their belief that by making guns more accessible to responsible citizens, criminals would be less likely to commit acts of violence. They speculate that an armed society would be able to prevent criminals from perpetrating a crime before it is even committed.

Essay on the Evils of Capitalism Exposed in Catch-22 -- Catch-22

Evils of Capitalism Exposed in Catch-22  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚      "That's some catch, that Catch-22" (47). Some catch indeed, for Catch-22 "is the best there is" (47). A strange paradox preventing men from being grounded under any circumstances, Catch-22 eventually evolves into a justification for doing virtually anything. After all, it "says [anyone] can do anything [that] we can't stop them from doing" (416). A less obviously stated, but equally powerful, validation for one's actions is the guarantee of profit. "It [is] odd how many wrongs leaving money [seems] to right" (418), for the promise or presence of some form of profit, rights even the wrongs warranted by Catch-22. Milo Minderbinder takes full advantage of this powerful reasoning and uses it extremely well. Yet, rather than using it to right wrongs, Milo uses it to justify his own dastardly deeds. Therefore, throughout Catch-22, Milo's capitalistic greed leads him to be an emblem evil. Milo spends most of his time in the army traveling Europe, the Middle East, and Africa in search of the best deal. With the use of "donated army equipment" (239) he buys and sells various items in order to make the highest profit. Rather than fly missions, Milo seeks to make money, capitalizing on his time abroad. After all, Milo "didn't start this war...[he's] just trying to put it on a businesslike basis" (262). This attitude leads Milo to begin a syndicate, one in which "everybody has a share" (238-239). This proposed arrangement keeps everyone at ease, so much so it leads to general sloth. Because "everybody [has] a share, ...men [get] fat and [move] about tamely with toothpicks in their greasy lips" (259). One by one, the men succumb to the charms of plenty as well as to their internal greed... ...avoids and resists many things that bring him closer to death or to violating his morals. Be it Aarfy, Colonel Cathcart, or war itself, Yossarian distances himself from the evil in question. Ironically, defiant as he is, Yossarian fails to break through the limitations of the syndicate and actually befriends its proprietor. Yossarian doesn't even attempt to do otherwise, for even he "sagged back in a contented stupor, his mouth filmy with a succulent residue" (22); Yossarian had become one of the men who "got fat and moved about with toothpicks in their greasy lips" (259). Therefore, even he who refuses to conform to other standards is corrupted by the sweet blandishments and innocent appearance of capitalism. The novel thus ends on the note that no one remains free from so powerful a force. Works Cited Heller, Joseph. Catch-22. New York: Knopf, Inc., 1995.

Practical Assignment: Introduction to Information Technology

Objective This coursework aims to provide students an opportunity to explore the use of Microsoft Word and Microsoft Powering to enhance their understanding of the application software features in word document and power-point slides presentation. Grouping This Is a group-based assignment. Student must form a group with minimum 4 members and maximum 5 members. Note: same group members of theory assignment. Plagiarism All work is to be the result of the student's own individual and group effort.Students found to have copied others' work will be penalized for plagiarism. A student who plagiarisms will receive zero point credit on the assignment. Late Policy The assignment should be submitted on the due date stated below unless there are legitimate reasons as to why a student can not complete the assignment by due date. As a general rule, no extension of time will be granted. Assignment received after the due date without legitimate reason will be penalized. Submission date: 22/07/2014 (Tuesday, week 1 1) Assignment return week: Week 14 To begin†¦ Find an article from newspapers, internet, magazines etc. And you have to make sure the article is able to match the features checklist [PART 2 FILE]. The article that you have selected must get the approval from your tutor. Take note: the article length must be at least a full page long of AAA paper size and/or at least 400 words. You can refer an article sample In Attachment 1 on Cell. Task 1: Based on the article that approved by your tutor, you need to design that article into organized. Task 2: Retained the contents of the article you designed in task 1 you need to create a retrieve and great-looking Power-point presentation slides show.Note: The power- point slides length must be between 10- 15 slides long. Assessment This assignment contributes 70% of the overall practical course assessment. Submission Details and Report Sequence Assignment report must properly staple with suitable labels. Use AAA sized paper with printing on one side only. Arrange the assignment report follow the sequence below: 1 . Submission form (is a cover page, you can download from. Plagiarism statement (you can download from Cell- PART 3 FILE) 3.Plagiarism statement form (you can download from Cell Features Checklists (you can download from Cell – PART 2 FILE) 5. Acknowledgement 6. Table of Contents 7. Word report 8. Powering presentation slides Note: Printed in Landscape Orientation with 4 slides in a sheet 9. References (follow Harvard Referencing System) Note: Inappropriate referencing style will cause marks deduction Save a softly of Powering presentation in a CD for Submission. (One tutorial class submit one CD ONLY which contains all different groups Powering slides show)

Engineering Research Paper

Package Contents 1 Hardware Connection Wireless Router Cable/DSL Modem Quick Installation Guide 54Mbps Wireless Router TL-WR ss Router 54M Wirele 340G WLAN PWR SYS WAN 1 2 3 4 TL-WR340G/TL-WR340GD Power Adapter RJ45 Internet 3 2 54Mbps Wireless Router POWER 4 3 2 1 WAN RESET LAN LINE 1 Cable Line Cable MODEL NO. TL-WR340G/TL-WR340GD Ethernet Cable Resource CD QIG Step 1. System Requirement  · Windows 7 MODEL NO. Connect the WAN port on your Router to the Modem’s LAN port with an Ethernet cable. Connect your computer to any Port labeled 1~4 on the Router with an Ethernet cable.Plug the provided Power Adapter into the Power jack on the back of the Router and the other end to a standard electrical Wall socket, and power on the Modem. Step 2. Step 3.  · Windows XP  · Windows 2000  · Windows Vista TL-WR340G/TL-WR340GD 2 Connecting by Easy Setup Assistant The Easy Setup Assistant is not supported in Linux or Mac OS. If you are runing Linux /Mac or without CD-ROM, please refe r to Appendix 1. 1 Insert the TP-LINK Resource CD into the CD-ROM drive. 3 After con rming the hardware connection and the status of LEDs, click Next to continue. 5 Select the connection type your ISP provides and click Next.Here we take connection type PPPoE for example. 7 Create a unique or easy-to-remember name for your wireless network. You can also keep the default setting. Click Next to continue. 2 Here we take TL-WR340G for example. Select TL-WR340G and click Easy Setup Assistant. 4 After the connectivity has been checked successfully, please click Next to continue. 6 Enter the User Name and Password provided by your ISP and then click Next. 8 You are recommended to select Most Security (WPA2-PSK) to secure your wireless network. Enter a key of 8~63 characters and click Next. (Turn over) 106503567 2 Connecting by Easy Setup Assistant 9 NEXT to continue. (continued) Appendix 1: Connecting by WEB Management Interface Router. 1) Set the IP address of your wired network adapter a s Automatically. For Windows 7 Go to ‘Start > Control Panel’. Click ‘View network status and tasks > Local Area Connection > Properties’ and double-click ‘Internet Protocol Version 4 (TCP/IPv4)’. Select ‘Obtain an IP address automatically’, choose ‘Obtain DNS server address automatically’ and click ‘OK’. For Windows Vista Go to ‘Start > Settings > Control Panel’.Click ‘View network status and tasks > View status > Properties’ and double-click ‘Internet Protocol Version 4 (TCP /IPv4)’. Select ‘Obtain an IP address automatically’, choose ‘Obtain DNS server address automatically’ and click ‘OK’. For Windows XP/2000 Go to ‘Start > Control Panel’. Click ‘Network and Internet Connections > Network Connections’. Right-click ‘Local Area Connection’, select ‘Properties’ and then double-c lick ‘Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)’. Select ‘Obtain an IP address automatically’, choose ‘Obtain DNS server address automatically’ and click ‘OK’. ) Click Finish or Reboot to make your settings take e ect. 2) Open your browser and type tplinklogin. net in the address eld. Then use admin for user name and password to login. 3) Go to Quick Setup and click Next. Select your Internet connection type and click Next. 11 Click FINISH to close the wizard. You can save these settings in a text le on your desktop. If you forget the Network Security Key, you can check the Router Settings. txt. You can click WEB management interface for more advanced settings. 4) Here we take PPPoE for example. Enter the User Name and Password provided by your ISP and then click Next. 0 12 click Next. The basic settings for your Router are completed. You can go to http://www. tp-link. com to verify the Internet connection. 5) Con gure your network name (SSID) an d password. and then click Next to continue. Appendix 2: Troubleshooting How do I restore my Router’s con guration to its factory default settings? With the Router powered on, press and hold the RESET button on the rear panel for 8 to 10 seconds using a pin before releasing it. Technical Support What can I do if I cannot access the Internet? 1) Check to see if all the connectors are connected well, including the elephone line (for your modem), Ethernet cables and power adapter. Check to see if you can access the Router’s web management page. If you can, please follow the following steps to solve the problem. If you can’t, please refer to Appendix 1. Make sure that you are connected to the TP-LINK Router with the computer that was originally connected to your modem, then log on to the web-based management page and browse to ‘Network > MAC Clone‘, click ‘Clone MAC address‘ and then click ‘Save‘. Reboot the Router and try to acce ss the Internet from your computer, if the problem persists, please go to the next step.What can I do if I forgot my password? 1) Restore the Router’s con guration to its factory default settings. If you don’t konw how to do that, please refer to How do I restore my Router’s con guration to its factory default settings? Use the default user name and password: admin, admin. Try to con gure your router once again by following the instructions in the previous steps of the QIG. For more troubleshooting help, go to www. tp-link. com/support/faq. asp To download the latest Firmware, Driver, Utility and User Guide, go to www. tp-link. com/support/download. sp For all other technical support, please contact us by using the following details: Global Tel: +86 755 26504400 E-mail : [email  protected] com Service time: 24hrs, 7days a week Singapore Tel: +65 62840493 E-mail: support. [email  protected] com Service time: 24hrs, 7days a week UK Tel: +44 (0) 845 147 0017 E- mail: support. [email  protected] com Service time: 24hrs, 7days a week USA/Canada Toll Free: +1 866 225 8139 E-mail: support. [email  protected] com Service time: 24hrs,7days a week Germany / Austria Australia & New Zealand Tel: AU 1300 87 5465 NZ 0800 87 5465 E-mail: [email  protected] com. u Service time: 24hrs, 7 days a week Malaysia Tel: 1300 88 875465 (1300 88TPLINK) E-mail: support. [email  protected] com Service time: 24 hrs a day, 7days a week Turkey Tel: 444 19 25 Turkish Service E-mail: support. [email  protected] com Service time: 9:00 AM to 6:00 PM, 7days a week Italy Tel: +39 02 66987799 E-mail: support. [email  protected] com Service time: 9:00 AM to 6:00 PM, from Monday to Friday Switzerland Tel: +41 (0)848 800998 (German service) E-mail: support. [email  protected] com Fee: 4-8 Rp/min, depending on Service time: Monday to Friday 9:00 AM to 6:00 PM. GMT+1 or GMT+2 (DaylightSaving Time) 2) 2) 3) 3) You can refer to our User Guide on the CD to set up more functions of the Router. Tel :+49 1805 875465 (German Service) / +49 1805 TPLINK E-mail: support. [email  protected] com Fee: 0. 14 EUR/min from the German 0. 42 EUR/min from mobile phone. Service Time: Monday to Friday 9:00 AM to 6:00 PM. GMT+1 or GMT+2 (Daylight Saving Time in Germany) * Except bank holidays in Hesse POWER 4 POWER 3 4 2 3 1 2 1 WAN WAN RESET RESET 4) Please feel free to contact our Technical Support if the problem persists. TP-LINK TECHNOLOGIES CO. , LTD. www. tp-link. com Engineering Research Paper Thesis Statement After exploring the field of engineering, it will be determined whether mechanical or genetic is better. Outline I. Introduction A. Intro of two careers II. Mechanical Engineering A. Description of career B. History C. The Job 1. Types of Jobs 2. Work Environment 3. Salary D. Education III. Genetic Engineering A. Description of career B. History C. Potential risks and dangers IV. Conclusion Introduction In the modern times of today, the world revolves around technology. With astonishing breakthroughs in science and technology every single day, the world is always changing, always adapting to the next big thing.To be more specific, the world revolves around engineering, genetic and mechanical. There are medicinal breakthroughs in genetic engineering all the time, cures for diseases, much needed vaccinations for new viruses, genetically improving plants for better produce, and overall improving different organisms so they will be better suited for life. On the other ha nd, in mechanical engineering, breakthroughs happen more often: better fuel efficient cars and cars that don’t run on gas at all, faster processing computers, new smart phones, and so many other gadgets that make life so much easier.Both of these fields are very important to society. The world literally wouldn’t be anywhere close to being the same without one or both of these fields, but which one is better? They each have equal importance in the world, but which is a better field to go into? Which field is easier to get into? Which will provide better benefits for its employees and for the world as a whole? After vigorous research the answer will be known. Mechanical Engineering: Description of career Mechanical engineers plan and design tools, engines, machines, and other mechanical systems that produce, transmit, or use power.These designs range from gasoline engines to rockets to kitchen food mixers. Their work varies by industry, employers, and function. They may work in design, instrumentation, testing, robotics, which is whole different field, transportation, or bioengineering (Careers in Focus, pg. 83). Mechanical engineering is the broadest of all engineering disciplines and fields; it extends across many interdependent specialties. Mechanical engineers may work in productions operations, maintenance, or technical sales and finance. There also many engineering administrators or managers (Engineering Careers, pg. 5). There are approximately 221,000 mechanical engineers employed in the United States (buzzle. com). Mechanical Engineering: History The earliest people who might have been called mechanical engineers were the ones who built things, large or small, safely and efficiently. Mechanical engineering has existed for thousands of years. Although on a simpler scale, pyramid building in ancient Egypt, for example, required extensive knowledge of engineering principles, large blocks of two and even three ton stone were transported and pos itioned perfectly to make the pyramids the world knows today (Mech.Eng. New Book of Knowledge pg. 224). The Ancient Greeks and Romans were also great builders, and also very influential on western civilizations architectural style. Unlike the Egyptians, they developed and made use of elaborate mechanical devices, like water pumps and power generating treadmills that were used for lifting and moving heavy objects. The Greeks even invented a steam engine, but back then they viewed it as a toy and not useful (Careers in Focus pg. 84). The term engineer was coined in the 14th century. It applied only to those who designed equipment for war.Their achievements were so important that the strength of a country’s military became heavily dependent on their inventions. Engineers who worked on civilian projects became simply known as civil engineers. Later, engineers who worked on machinery and generating power were called mechanical engineers (Engineering Careers pg. 98). The modern fie ld of mechanical engineering sprouted during the Renaissance. During this time engineers focused their energies on developing more efficient ways of doing ordinary tasks like pumping water. Water wheels and windmills were common energy producers (buzzle. om). Leonardo da Vinci was a true innovative engineer. He tried and nearly succeeded in creating a helicopter, submarine, and his famous flying machine. One of the most significant inventions of the Renaissance was the clock (Encyclopedia of Careers pg. 221). Despite these developments, it wasn’t until the Industrial Revolution that modern day mechanical engineering came to life. The steam engine was introduced in 1712 by Thomas Newcomen. Over half a century later, James Watt modified the steam engine to be power large industrial machines.In 1876 Nicolaus Otto developed the internal combustion engine which became one of the most significant and important inventions of the century. The American Society of Mechanical Engineers was formed by 1880 (Careers in Focus pg. 85). Mechanical engineering expanded rapidly in the 20th century. Mass production systems allowed large quantities of standardized goods to be made at a low cost, and mechanical engineers played a large role in the design of these systems. In the second half of the 20th century computers came into play heavily.Mechanical engineers now design mechanical systems on the computer, and they are used to test, monitor, and analyze mechanical systems and factory production, a trend that is evident during modern times (Goodwin, Peter pg. 51). Mechanical Engineering: The Job On average a mechanical engineer makes anywhere from $48,426 to $100,000+, and they deserve every penny of it. The work of a mechanical engineer begins with research and development. Depending on what company you work for, you could be asked to develop a more fuel efficient car engine or many other things.Then research is done to further knowledge in whatever you’re trying t o build before you actually design it (buzzle. com). Information gained from research is then taking to be analyzed and used to make a commercially useful product. The engineer would be responsible for specifying every single detail of the machine or mechanical system. Since the late 1900’s, mechanical engineers have increasingly used computers in the design process. After the product has been designed and a prototype has been developed, the product is analyzed by engineers.Design and testing engineers continue to work together until the product meets the necessary criteria (Careers in Focus pg. 85). Once the final design is set, it is the job of the engineer to come up with most time and cost efficient way of making the product without sacrificing quality. The amount of factory floor space, the type of manufacturing equipment and machinery, and the cost of labor and materials has to be considered. Engineers select the necessary equipment and machines and oversee their arrang ement and safe operation. Other engineer specialists, like chemical, electrical, and industrial engineers may help (Mech.Engineering New Book of Knowledge pg. 226). Mechanical engineers also work in marketing, sales, and administration. In a small company an engineer may need to perform most if not all of the above tasks on their own. The working conditions of mechanical engineers vary. Most work indoors in offices, research laboratories, or production departments of factories and shops (Careers in Focus pg. 89). Depending on the job, an engineer may spend a significant amount of time on a noisy factory floor, at a construction sight, or at another field operation.Mechanical engineers originally designed systems on drafting boards and making the traditional blueprints, but since the introductions of sophisticated software programs, design is more and more done on computers (Goodwin, Peter pg. 55). For the most part, engineering is a cooperative effort. An engineer may have specific duties and require independent work; each project is usually the job of an entire engineering team, a team that can include other engineers, engineering technicians, and engineering technologist (Mech.Engineering New Book of Knowledge pg. 228). Mechanical engineers generally have a standard 40 hour workweek. However their work hours heavily depend on the deadlines for projects. They may work long hours to make a deadline, or show up for second and third shifts to check production at a factory or a construction project (Engineering Careers pg. 101). Mechanical engineering can be a very satisfying occupation. Engineers often get the pleasure of seeing their designs or modifications built and operating.On the other hand it can be very frustrating when a project is stalled, full of errors, or even just abandoned. Mechanical Engineering: Education Before anyone can become a mechanical engineer, like any other career, they need an education. Starting high school, one must take courses in geometry, trigonometry, and calculus. Communication skills are important for mechanical engineers because they interact with a variety of co-workers and vendors and are often required to make and/or/ present reports, so English and speech classes are also helpful.Also because computers are now so important to engineering, computer science courses are also recommended (educationportal. com). A bachelor’s degree in mechanical engineering is usually the minimum educational requirement for entering the field. A master’s degree or even a Ph. D. may be necessary for obtaining some positions, like those in research, teaching, and administration (educationportal. com). In the United States, there are more than 200 colleges and universities where engineering programs have been approved by the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology.Most of these institutions offer programs in mechanical engineering. Although it varies from school to school, most require a solid backg round in mathematics and science (Career in Focus pg. 87). In a four year undergraduate program, students start with studying calculus, physics, and chemistry. At some schools, a five or six year program combines classroom study with practical experience working for an engineering firm. Students usually end up working for the firm after college. A graduate degree is a prerequisite for becoming a university professor or researcher.It may also lead to a higher level job within an engineering department or firm (Encyclopedia of Careers pg. 223). Genetic Engineering: Description of Career Genetic engineering is the direct manipulation of an organism's genome, or DNA structure, using biotechnology. Genetic engineering alters the DNA of the chosen organism, by either altering the DNA directly or inserting a different DNA strand inserted that was made outside the host. If genetic material from another species is added to the host, the resulting organism is called transgenic (Gen. Engineeri ng New Book of Knowledge pg. 2). Genetic engineers use their research and experiments to find cures for disease, breed better animals and plants, and to one day map the human genome which would then give us the knowledge of a potential disease free human race. Genetic Engineering: History Long before the principles of genetics were known people began to domesticate wild animals and plants and selected those that could be used for food or for doing work. This selective breeding was an early kind of genetic engineering, a deliberate effort to develop strains of organisms that would benefit human beings.There is even a bible story revolved around genetic engineering in which Jacob strategically mated his black sheep with his employer Labans white sheep, creating spotted and streaked sheep (Gen. Engineering New Book of Knowledge pg. 82). In time, many new strains of plants and animals were developed. Among these were new strains of cattle, horses, dogs, cats, wheat, rice, and corn. An e xample would be the different kinds of horses, a sleek fast racehorse and strong larger workhorses. Breeding animals this way became very popular and useful to the US (Encyclopedia of Careers and Vocational Guidance pg. 51). During the 1900’s, genetic engineering became a much more accurate science and study. Scientist learned to breed pure strains of plants and animals. These purebred strains are genetically constant. This means that all of the offspring will be exactly like their parents for every generation. The purebred strains did not always show desirable qualities. But when different purebreds were mated with one another, some of the offspring showed more desirable qualities and unusual vigor. The offspring produced are called hybrids.They have genes from two or more different strains (Dhillon, Sukhraj pg. 34) At first, scientist depended on natural mutations to produce the kinds of genes that could be used in developing new strains, but nature took too long. Later the y learned to cause mutations by exposing organisms to radiation such as X-rays. Offspring who actually displayed useful mutations were developed into new valuable strains. Offspring that did not display useful mutations were kept for further testing, set free, or terminated depending on the mutation (McCuen, Gary pg. 30).Millions of lives have been saved by one product of genetic engineering that was developed in this way. In 1928 a Scottish scientist discovered that penicilium molds make a bacteria fighting substance know to us as penicillin. It was first used during World War II to treat infections in soldiers’ wounds. The molds however did not produce enough penicillin to meet the demand. In a lab, some strains of penicilium were X-rayed to cause mutations. In time, high-yielding strains of the mold were developed and large amounts of penicillin were produced (The Ethics of Genetic Engineering pg. 6). As scientist learned more about genetics, they learned how to remove, pu rify, and study the genes of simple organisms. Bacteria were of particular interest because of their ability to make enzymes that can cut through strands of DNA at specific places. With these enzymes, bacteria can attack viruses that invade their cells by cutting the DNA from the viruses into harmless fragments (Gen. Engineering New Book of Knowledge pg. 84). Genetic Engineering: Potential Risks and Dangers These enzymes also have made possible a dramatic new kind of genetic engineering called gene splicing.Gene splicing is actually portrayed accurately in fiction movies. The freakish monsters can actually be created. Using this method, scientist can take a gene from one organism and splice into another organism’s genetic material. Since the bases of DNA are the same for most organisms, pieces of DNA from quite different species can be spliced together to create incredible creatures. Almost any kind of plant or animal DNA can be inserted into the DNA of bacteria, and vice ver sa. Even synthetic DNA can be spliced into a cell’s genetic material. This is DNA made entirely in the laboratory (Career in Focus pg. 69).Some people believe that gene splicing could be used to create new kinds of dangerous new organisms, either accidently or on purpose. Government and private research organizations follow guidelines for gene splicing. Some kinds of experiments can be carried out only in laboratories that have special safety features. So far, gene splicing has not caused any out breaks of serious illnesses or environmental disasters, as critics feared. However, the possibility exists that gene splicing will not always work as planned. As a result, some people have called for stricter regulations of this technology (Levine, Harry pg. 52). Besides gene splicing, biological and biochemical warfare is the biggest threat of genetic engineering. Biological warfare is the use of biological toxins or infectious agents such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi with intent to kill or incapacitate humans, animals or plants as an act of war. Diseases have been genetically engineered to kill its host and be completely immune to any vaccines. Although biological warfare was outlawed in 1972, the United States has biological defense and offense programs in case that level of war would ever be needed (McCuen, Gary pg. 119). ConclusionIn conclusion, mechanical and genetic engineering are both very important to society. Mechanical engineers are the backbone to society. Mechanical engineers design, build, and test new technology to help better the lives of humans. They not only give us new toys to play with, but advances in technology keep us safe with fast reacting systems for police, unbelievably accurate weather tracking systems to warn people of severe weather, and advancements in the United States military to keep the country the land of the free. While on the other hand genetic engineering has saved the human ace countless times. The scientific engineer s have developed vaccines and immunizations to all kinds of disease most people have never even heard of. Although they are both very important fields, mechanical engineering outweighs genetic engineering. As a career mechanical engineering provides better opportunities and is more enjoyable as a career. Although genetic engineering has important breakthroughs, those breakthroughs don’t happen very often, every couple decades or so, while breakthroughs in mechanical engineering happen by the months. Mechanical engineers make people’s lives easier.That could mean making a car that runs on less gas and someone doesn’t have to pay as much gas, making a high tech phone, or putting GPS satellite tracking in your phone so you will never lose it. Also and more importantly, mechanical engineers don’t such a high risks as genetic engineers. Genetic engineers have to understand that they can contract diseases or be exposed to an experiment that could be fatal on jo b. Mechanical engineers have no risks like. All in all mechanical engineering is the way to go. Works Cited (n. d. ). Career Information Center. (2002).Princeton, New Jersey: Macmillan Reference USA. Careers in Focus: Engineering. (1999). Chicago, Illinois: Ferguson Publishing. Dhillon, S. (1990). 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